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fondovыh rыnkov razvyvayuschyhsya countries

of American market for wireless technologies tsennыh , nesomnenno, is the one of the most advanced in the world, and the level of supervision is one of the most successful. This is natural, given the volume of transactions taking place in this market, and its relationship with all the stock markets of the world. On the level of U.S. stock market tells the newspaper "Capital Market".


Financial pyramid and Ponzi scheme

classic pyramid scheme - is a specific way to ensure that income due to the constant raising funds from new members of the pyramid. Usually pyramid registered as commercial institutions and attract funds to finance certain project. If the actual yield is below the project promised to investors of income or non-existent, while the funds of new investors sent the payment of income.

Since Ponzi scheme produces nothing, then all the focus of the Fund on the PR-campaign. Natural result of this situation is the bankruptcy of the project and recent losses of investors. The collected funds not earmarked for the purchase of liquid assets, and immediately used to pay previous participants in the advertising and revenue of the organizers. The longer operating a pyramid, the smaller the percentage of possible return for its elimination.

Ponzi scheme - a kind of Ponzi scheme, named for Charles Ponzi. In August 1919, one of English businessmen in a letter sent to Charles International reply coupons. Ascertaining the details of handling coupon Ponzi discovered that the ratio of exchange rates can be resold at a profit in the U.S. coupons acquired in several countries in Europe. Ponzi established the company "The Securities and Exchange Company" (SXC) and persuaded several investors to finance his proposed fraud in exchange for promissory note, promising them a 50 percent profit on the transatlantic trade after 45 days, or even 100% after 90 days, which is much higher than those payment issuers of other securities.

In fact, Ponzi was not going to buy the coupons. The fact that the international reply coupons could be exchanged only on postage stamps, not cash, that is, as a tool for speculation coupons were not good. This information was not secret - if you want it could clarify any of depositors. Nevertheless, by July 1920 Ponzi sold his bill up to $ 250 thousand dollars a day. The pyramid collapsed, and fortunately investors, some of the money could be found and returned. On average, each investor received approximately 37% of the nominal value of bills.

Decades later, the Ponzi scheme continues to operate on a "rob Peter to pay Paul," so the money of new investors used to pay old investors.

first place among the founders of the largest pyramid schemes, possibly for decades to come, took Bernard Madoff , whose financial pyramid collapsed, buried under a thousand large and small investors around the world.

Methods Madoff Investment in "Stanford International Bank" in 2001 attracted the attention of SEC As incomprehensible even to experts in this field. But the profit dispelled all doubts among investors about the methods used. Madoff did not give a huge profit and suspicious, on the contrary - the profit was moderate, but stable for customers and investors. Its advantage was the knowledge of the tax regulation and experience in philanthropy. Base of the pyramid were the charities that manage the money of investors that are intended for educational, social and other programs that allowed the pyramid to act for a long time.

Everything was "good" until December 2008 when the demand on liquidity. In the end, and charities that invested with Madoff, lost millions of dollars.

masquerading as charities, Madoff defended himself against the risk of a sharp and sudden withdrawal of investments, so he decided almost two main problems characteristic of the pyramids: the support of demand and maintain stability.

During the courses organized by the Institute, the American market experts were asked why the SEC did not adopt the strict measures in 2001, have been identified the first signs of a pyramid. The representative of the U.S. Commission responded that while some people were well connected with senior officials from the U.S. Congress through charities, so during the investigation to the commission under pressure.

SEC experience in this area is confirmed the fact that in recent years, the Department of International Relations at the U.S. oversight body able to prevent the investment and the return of about 0,5 billion U.S. already invested in this type of financial fraud. Forms of struggle with this scheme are quite simple and can be reduced, in general, to raise awareness investors and the general public.

importance of good corporate governance

Another course was devoted to corporate governance, which seems a very topical issue for our country. According to my interlocutors here focuses on voice and representation by attorney shareholders. For example, the problem of representation by proxy is relevant for the U.S., which reminds us of our investment funds and the procedure of collective management of these organizations in Moldova, the number of shareholders who reached 200 thousand people.

regulation in the sector of investment funds the U.S. began only after the Great Depression, 30-40 years of last century, in order to protect investors. According to the law on securities trading, adopted in the U.S. 1933, investment fund must have at least 15 areas for investment, and each of them must be invested not less than 5% of fund assets. Naturally, such a measure leads to a significant reduction in risk. Here comes the question: Can the Moldovan economy to offer similar conditions to implement these principles?

role of self-regulatory organizations in the stock market

Special attention was paid to mergers and acquisitions that has special significance for the stock market. As reported by our Moldovan representatives, the regulation of this sector in the U.S. involves ensuring disclosure participants these transactions. Previously disclosed the role and purpose of public offerings in the course of acquisitions and mergers.

Bringing a number of specific examples of mergers and acquisitions U.S. stock market has shown the importance of public offerings. Special role in the American system of regulating the stock market are self-regulating organization, the largest of which is the service industry regulation of financial services to the U.S. FINRA (Financial Industry Regulatory Authority). By the way, hierarchical control system stock market in the U.S. has three main components: the public authority - SEC (upper), self-regulatory organizations (middle), and the base, which are brokers and dealers. FINRA is a nongovernmental organization that regulates the activities of participants in U.S. financial markets. American Federal law gives FINRA to impose disciplinary penalties and to organizations conducting securities transactions, as well as their employees, who violate the rules established by it. FINRA has an educational fund for investors whose purpose - to attract as many investors in the investment market. The Fund's strategy is to more fully inform potential investors. Through special programs - Grants for the community begins with the school, pupils 5-graders are already familiar with investment issues.

Another pressing issue for our stock market is to manipulate the market. On this topic discussed the negative impact of fraud on the normal development of securities market securities to investors' mentality, resorting to such methods.

Participants were introduced to the basic indicators of the dominant market - supply reduction securities, which leads to a slight rise in prices, failure of brokers to execute client instructions to sell securities, and so on.

growth factors in stock Market

One of the latest topics covered in the institute this year were the main factors of growth in the securities market. Here, among the weaknesses of the stock market were given excessively high costs of investing in securities, lack of funds or lack of them by the government for the development of securities market securities (and the lack of projects aimed at development), lack of innovation in the market.

These were the main topics discussed during the program, about which we were told by the representatives of the NCFM involved in it. It is obvious that the practice of supervision the U.S. stock market can not be fully applicable in our country due to underdevelopment of the market. In this regard, we note that one of the lectures offered by the organizers, was entitled "The right way of development securities market. " It is appropriate to lead a rather interesting statement: "In both developed and developing economies through participation in the market securities is that the income of participants exceeds the average wage in the economy. " I think that, at least for our country, this scheme dolzhna potrebytelskuyu and include cart.
http://www.maonline.ru/crysis/4921-amerikanskijj-opyt-dlja-fondovykh-rynkov.html

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"AA" loans (practical advice)

link to the original article http://h.ua/story/94623/

will be useful for those who today celebrated "Last call" at school

debt - the only thing that truly connects you with people

Sergei Dovlatov

Author - Mazharka Irina

study free of charge - it means learning from the state budget, in accordance with state orders. Unfortunately, wanting to study in higher education far more than it can finance the state, because the overwhelming number of them remains behind. " Those who were not lucky enough to get to the budget institutions provide the opportunity to study on a contractual basis, ie money. The charges for all period of study or to provide additional educational services established higher education institution in the currency of Ukraine, including officially designated inflation for the previous calendar year, and fixed in the contract, which may be determined order of fees once (full) or particles - monthly, posemestrovo annually. The amount specified in the agreement can not be changed during the entire period of study. Teaching in higher education institutions usually can not afford the average citizen, so the aid of loans for education.

loan education - a relatively new service on the market be a maximum of five years ago. For banks this service is associated with high risks, so it offers only a few financial institutions. Today in this sector taking the leading place "Privat", "Nadra", "Aval, Ukrsotsbank and give credit:" Imexbank "Mriya-Bank, First Credit Alliance, PRAVEX-BAN, Khreschatyk, AB Brokbusinessbank, Pivdenkom Bank.

the West's educational loan population is quite long. Successful development of the borrowings for the acquisition of knowledge in developed countries is largely determined by the existence of legislative base and support state. Ukraine lacks the first, and second, that does not contribute to the coordinated work of educational institutions, and state banks. However, active growing segment of credit education today many bankers predict.

Author - Svetlana wolfhound

Forecasts forecasts, but still the same market participants consider that the average Ukrainian is not ripe for study by borrowed funds and explains the small number of special (only for training) loan programs. And each bank argues it's own way. According to Deputy Chairman of the bank "Contract" Paul Krapivina, Ukrainian consumers not yet ready to not only learn, but also relax, pay for health insurance, etc. - in other words, finance borrowed money intangible capital consumption.

Lending educational programs inhibits the desire for "free public education," which happened historically. On the other hand, the bank's important point is to verify the customer creditworthiness, ie, certificate of employment stating salary the last six months. Secured credit, may be real estate, vehicles and third party guarantee. Loans are for students Bank sufficiently risky operation and is designed for parents who will act as security in obtaining the loan.

experience of Western countries illustrates us a solid legal framework that protects all parties to the loan process. Banks act as intermediaries between the student and the state, and from special State funds covered interest rate reduction for students with high achievers. World experience shows that turnover of the largest market participants Educational loans are hundreds of millions of dollars a year. And in this case will benefit not only the bank - and win the state, and the borrower. In developed European countries have large-scale cooperative programs and state financial institutions to extend credit to education. Every year the number credit programs increases. On the one hand, this leads to an increase in profit the bank, on the other - as we already mentioned above, the interest rate reduction (And benefiting the borrower). In Ukraine, donors, banks, and special programs, which provided compensation to banking risks, not because credit is not always is beneficial to the borrower and the Bank for granting it is risky.

by foreign financial institutions could become a catalyst for the formation of new services in the product line of Ukrainian banks, and thereby leader of foreigners in the educational field. But while their priorities tend to concentrated on the highly profitable consumer credit and expanding the network. "Our first priority - to build an effective customer base and create branch network. Students certainly a very interesting target audience, but offers them may appear only at a certain stage of development bank, - Said of the reason for the relevance of educational credit bank UniCredit Bank Deputy Chairman Fedele Di Madzhyo, noting that most promising in bank lending see MBA programs.

in Ukraine bank that provides loans for education has full control of the target of the loan. Loans funds transferred to the account of the institution indicating the cashless payment details. Himself Eligible oformlyuvatysya as a student, and for parents. The main prerequisite is the ability of the client billing and registration at the location of the bank at least one year. This means that students from the regions wishing to study in the capital, must borrow money at home. And the fact that, while successfully joining the student will be forced to change the place of residence (At least in a dormitory), makes obtaining a loan for the applicant unrealistic.

Interesting and minimum permissible age for which the borrower is 21, which already excludes a loan for most students, after school, which is more than 18 years. Bankers admit such discrepancies, however, hope of success.

Today's portfolio of consumer loans banks that offer these loans share loans for education is less than 1% - much to solve it or not our readers.

Currently lending program for education similar to those that exist in Western countries (where the borrower begins to repay the loan immediately after graduation) in Ukraine.

For visual illustration here's a sampling of credit terms some banks:

AB Brokbusinessbank offers individuals take advantage of special service credit for tuition costs: "Credit to education."

With the new service, each student has the opportunity to choose for themselves the best option to pay for training, make the learning process as easy as possible, receive additional benefits: - fast loan - loan can be obtained without advance payment - the use of payment cards for payment outstanding loans - the possibility of early repayment - the availability of bank deals in the future. Loans are granted in the national currency for a period of 12 months at the rate of cost for each year of study. Interest rate on loan is 1.75% per month.

time fee of the bank for a loan; 1% of the loan. The maximum loan amount of 15 000 in Kiev, 10 in 000 cities with populations over 1 million, 7500 USD in the cities of regional significance, 5000 USD in towns, etc.. towns and villages.

PS However, I personally do not understand the expediency of the credit for one year. For people who can repay the loan with interest within one year, he, in principle, are not even needed. Apparently, the banks should develop a system where the student during training will pay only interest, then settling down to work, pohashatyme own credit. But even in the plans of the financiers of such projects does not.

State credit

Entrants who enter the university for study under contract, but unable to pay its own provision educational services, each year the opportunity to receive targeted preferential government loans for higher education. Credit is given only once a study by the same specialty for education and qualification of junior specialist, bachelor's, specialist's, master's in higher educational institution that operates on the territory of Ukraine. But the funds allocated by the state to provide preferential government loans is not enough for everyone.

Question of enroll students pay his education at the expense of long-term concessional loan committee to decide university institution at the request of the applicant the results of entrance examinations in accordance with the established quota. The order granting preferential government loans targeted for higher education approved by the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine.

REQUIREMENTS AND SKILLS

Trust preferential government loans for higher education for day, evening and distance learning in higher education regardless of ownership can get people Ukraine under 28 who have successfully passed the entrance exams or studying on any course of higher education. Applicants with orphans and children deprived of parental care, children from poor and large families, invalids of groups I and II have advantages similar results entrance exam among applicants who apply for higher education through a loan. In selecting applicants considered the following criteria as success, ability to master knowledge, participate in contests and more. Loan amount is determined each year by April 1, higher education institution state ownership, based on the cost of training (excluding grants) to the form of education and approved by the central executive power, which is subordinate to higher education. The loan is provided under an agreement between the recipient and leader of higher education institution. Form of Agreement approved by the Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine. Where the borrower is a minor, the agreement entered into by parents or persons who replace them. When you reach age borrower pereukladaye general higher education institution. To deal with the borrower, and if he is a juvenile - the parents or persons who replace them, and submit to the university passport and certificate of state tax Administration TIN. Agreement is concluded in three copies - one each side, which concluded it. One copy agreement submitted by higher education institutions of regional community-owned Department of Education and Science Administration. The recipient returns credit and interest on him through university. The loan amount is returned with payment of 3% per annum for 15 years, starting from twelfth month after graduation in higher education each year with payment of one fifteenth of the total loan and interest earned for using it. Expelled from the university return the loan funds from the third month after deductions. If failure conditions of the loan agreement and avoid repayment university applies the measures for debt collection under the law.

borrower, who after graduation worked of at least 5 years in the public or communal establishment or institution in rural areas, credit and interest on them will not return, which is confirmed annually at the time of payment certificate of employment. The term of repayment for a period of emergency service the loan or stay in his vacation child care until the age of three.

Instead conclusions

Such loans are definitely the most profitable, but rarely advertise its presence, so we encourage to contact the selection committee of the state university for additional information in which they have no right to refuse you. Know Your rights, use them and higher education is accessible and quality.

Especially for students and their parents (guardians)

L. Muse

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is French economist and statesman Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, baron de l'Aulne

In protyvopolozhnost Voltaire, Turgot tried to show that progress thought manifested itself even in the "dark and barbaric" era of the Middle Ages . Upon emerging from the Sorbonne Turgot admitted to the Paris parliament and two years later was promoted to reketmeystera . But studies of judicial affairs did not absorb Turgot: he wanted to write philosophy History , engaged geography , literature, natural sciences and quickly disappeared from almost all erudite and literary world of Paris. He became a member of the salon of Madame Zhoffren , where he met with Montesquieu , d'Alembert , Helvetius , Holbach , and later (1762) and Adam Smith .

It was especially important for his introduction in 1755, the with the head of the school Physiocrats , Ken , and Gournay . With the latest Turgot became friends more than anything, has traveled with him to France, studied the state of the industry and trade, familiar with the economic policy of the Government and its findings. One piece Turgot appears after the other, and in almost every affected burning questions. Turgot wrote against the philosophy of Berkeley (« Lettres contre le système de Berkeley ») and against Maupertuis , on the question of the origin of language (« Remarques critiques », 1750 ); parses the famous« Peruvian letters »( 1751 ,« Observations à M-me de Graffigny »); is the plan as political geography , and World History (« Géographie politique » and « Discours sur l'histoire universelle » (did not finish.), 1750 and 1751 ); discusses the question of religious tolerance (« Lettres sur la tolérance », 1753 -4;« Le conciliateur ou lettres d'un ecclésiastique à un magistrat sur la tolérance civile », 1754 ); makes a number of philosophical and economic articles in the encyclopedia, and a number of books on the same issues (the words Existence, Etymologie, Expansibihte, Foires et marihés, Fondation in encyclopedias; éloge de Gournay , 1759 ). Everywhere and in all Turgot is a kind of a thinker, a man of moderate thinking, did not share the mood, hostile creatures system. Thus, in his letters to Madame de Graffigna Turgot is an advocate of inequality, seeing in it the good, without which even the development of useful Art. In the treatises on religious tolerance, despite the breadth of vision, Turgot was behind a State's right to choose a particular religion, and provide protection, thereby eliminating the possibility of strengthening the superstition, bigotry, etc. According to Ken, he is to maintain an unlimited central authority "under the influence of memories of the great benefactions rendered France and Europe, a king who established the community and gave the civil rights of the vast mass of people " (Memoirs of Madame Hausset). Commitment to its monarchy affected and in receipt of Turgot in a reformed parliament (in chambre royale , 1754 ), and in the note submitted them as a minister Louis XVI on the reform of municipalities, and in a letter to Dr. Price on the U.S. Constitution.

In 1761, the Turgot was appointed intendant in Limoges , where he stayed until 1774 city Here, his work gets the most widespread. It never ceases to engage in scientific matters, has been active correspondence with friends on different issues to scientists, translates Horace and Popa , to exchange ideas about the pronunciation Latin letters from David Hume , about philosophy and ethics - with Condorcet , wrote a series of treatises on political economy (« Réflexions sur la formation et la distribution des richesses », Article about the value and money in the commercial dictionary Morellet, Memoires free trade bread for a loan, the mining industry, sends a number of circulars to local officials, rural priests, etc., on the allocation of taxes and embodying the whole theory of financial law.

At the same time, he tirelessly working as a quartermaster, performing very carefully all the infinite variety of functions associated with this title. In his charge was large district. This was the area to keep a clean agricultural character. Except for a few factories are concentrated in Limoges and a few other cities, the industry is almost non-existent. Trade was very poorly developed, encountering obstacles and be able to means of communication, and poverty, primitive way to cultivate the land, mostly by cows on marginal soil, and forced the masses to go on the annual earnings in other areas, even in Spain. This area was terribly burdened by taxes. Of the total income earned by about 48-50% went to the Revenue. According to the calculations Turgot, she overpaid treasury for 700 thousand francs more than the other provinces of the kingdom. To join this extremely uneven taxation of individual counties and parishes, a unique set of complete chaos in compiling lists of tax-paying, irregular and often arbitrary valuation of land owned by peasants.

Upon arrival in Limousin Turgot first attempted to correct the evil caused by a system of taxation. Based on the theory of the Physiocrats, Turgot in his memoir « Sur les impositions » pointed out the main conditions for the establishment of tax: it must be quite precise and definite and consistent income landowner. In practice, however, he had to stay under the old system, that is, when charging a certain amount from each parish, the people who distribute it between them. He conceived, however, there was a kadastratsiyu , to produce a complete description of the area, the site of the site, by remeasurement them and correct and detailed assessment of profitability of each. He followed the work of its agents, and gathered a lot of accurate data in many parishes. Not his fault was that started the case was not brought to an end. For a serious inventory holding he lacked the funds and the government denied him in their allocations. On the other hand, evaluation work in one Limuzene without the same all over France did not give strong grounds for determining the share of taxes owed to the Limousin. All efforts Turgot fold excess taxed weight from Limousin proved just as futile as the insistence of its relative kadastratsii throughout France. His efforts have had, however, a considerable influence on people's minds, and the system that he used in Limuzene, became the starting point for a subsequent time.

better Turgot reached of the reforms he had in relation to natural road trespass ( corvée ). Even earlier, the quartermaster at Qana, Fonzett, tried to convert natural obligations in cash. Turgot to expand what has been done Fonzettom, and, despite stubborn resistance, achieved that in 1764 city most of the parishes expressed its consent to the reform. Soon after the fund is established by which Turgot could start a series of road structures, linking the main centers of the province between themselves. In relation to another scourge of the rural population - police , Turgot tried to replace the draw, causes the greatest complaints system Writing in the voluntary policemen, and freed from the heavy responsibilities of parishes to look for evaded conscription. To ensure rural population, he applied to Limuzenu practiced already in the Languedoc and Franche-Comté return delivery wagons for military matters in the hands of an entrepreneur with the contract. Finally, Turgot began to build the barracks to limit anything like Postojna ruinous duty.

Studying the past has led Turgot to the conclusion that the fact that ownership is gradually separated from the fact that cultivation of land, resulting in gross income from the land was distributed among farmer, as a reward for hard work, and the owner. The latter, less given out to the worker and discharged on the other production costs gets all the remaining, or net income. Under such circumstances, the burden of tax on Turgot, was supposed to fall on the owner, not the farmer. Release, as possible, the latter from taxation created by the old regime , reduce the bad effects of it by kadastratsii, to promote all measures raising culture, to eliminate the harmful influence of prevailing economic policies - such were the main objectives of Turgot's view of the ultimate goal common with the Physiocrats: increasing the country's wealth. He patronized the agricultural society, trying to direct its activities on the application improved methods of agriculture, organized on regular basis, compensation for losses incurred by farmers and others from poor harvests, hail, fire, etc., abolished the right of police officers sent to collect the arrears, taking from the peasants of the fare and content, as well as the right to sell arrears for bed, livestock, agricultural implements, coined the potatoes.

According to Turgot, freedom - the main condition for the development of wealth: it should be given to everyone in the field of labor, and in the field of trade relations. To create national wealth should be returned trade that precious the freedom that it has lost because of prejudice generated by a century of ignorance and the tendency of governments to appease private interests, to facilitate opportunity for everyone to work, thereby possibly create greater competition, leading to improved production and pricing, the most profitable for buyers. Combining the theory of freedom and unlimited competition with the theory of separation of the owner of the worker, Turgot states that "working Desktop Board is limited to that necessary for its existence. " In 1769 city in Angouleme arose commercial crisis as a result of flooding Market inflated (friendly) Bills . Trade has stopped, the merchants lost their credit, many people turned out to be bankrupt. Speculators, put into circulation phony bill, conceived to take advantage of crisis: they began to accuse those whom they have used these bills in usury, and filed a complaint against them in court, relying existed in France at the medieval laws of growth. Turgot used the crisis, both theoretically and in practice. He succeeded in transferring case to the Royal Council, the suspension of prosecution and interdiction bring such cases in future. He presented to the board in the form of memoir his famous treatise on the rise ( sur les prêts d'argent ), which subjected to a rigorous critique of medieval views on growth. His arguments were repeated in one way or another form of liberal economists school XIX century. not succeeded Turgot's only one thing: the publication of the royal declaration, which would authorize its principles.

for trade and monetary crisis followed in Limuzene in 1770 - 1771 years. terrible famine - as a consequence of bad harvests and weaken the existing population regime. The energy found in Turgot these unfortunate years has been amazing. He has made the government loan in 1240 thousand livres, overexposed 90 thousand, has spent his personal funds (20 thousand livres), called for help society organized throughout Limuzene and workshops, and offices for the issuance of allowances and to some measure saved population from the horrors of famine. But most importantly, what he had in mind - it was free trade , in this case, trade in grain. In 1764 city royal edict allow free trade in grain, but when the famine, Bordeaux Parliament issued a decree limiting the operation of the law, municipalities began to violate it, and the Comptroller General , Abbe Terre , draw up a new edict to repeal the law 1764 city Turgot appealed to the Board of the Royal rescission of the decree of the Parliament of Bordeaux, has canceled all orders of urban municipalities, against freedom of trade, sent the villages a lot of copies as the edict 1764 city and Letrona treatise on freedom of trade in grain, became the person to go on starving the localities, promoting their ideas. From October to December 1770 , during the way, among the tireless work at the spot in favor of starving Turgot sent one letter after another to the abbot Terre, trying to convince him of the need to preserve and expand freedom of trade in grain. In the 7 letters to Turgot had exhausted all the arguments in favor of free trade bread. She had, in his opinion, call the culture of all the provinces of France, Limousin lead to the same level with Normandy and Picardy , harmful polovnichestvo must give way under such conditions, farming, large-scale culture, that is, by implementing the basic principle fiziokratizma, increase the wealth of the country. Efforts Turgot proved futile. Terre won the approval of the Edict of King December 23 1770, is repealed the basic principles of law 1764 city

In 1774, the the throne joined Louis XVI . Turgot's favorite philosopher and economist, was appointed First Minister of the Navy, and later, in August of that year, the Comptroller General of Finance. Appointment of it seemed a pledge of a better future, but in reality it was only a matter of court influences, especially coming on from a friend Turgot, the Abbe Beri, Turgot and the fans and his theories, the Duchess of d'Anvil.

Turgot was appointed inspector in adulthood, with well defined beliefs, with the finished program. As quartermaster, he had already tried to apply his theory and in practice, but here his work is disseminated in a small area he was involved a law, independent of the royal council, and only in small matters can act independently.

new post he occupied in the belief that he is able to convert the France based on his principles. Not that he did not foresee the obstacles in its way. He undoubtedly feared the influence of the Queen when he was a program for the king, then wrote the words: "and against the generosity of Your Majesty," he began wrote: "Queen", but crossed out the words. He likes the absolute power he had, however, firmly convinced that with her help he is able to carry the projected reform: he attributed the words "give me 5 years despotism - and France will be free." He presented the king his profession de foi , a whole program of its future actions and reforms, entirely built on he developed economic and political theory. "I will not deceive you," - he answered the king Turgot an audience August 27 1774 city At one of the requirements Tyurrgo, throw out the old formulas coronation oath phrase about the extermination of heretics, was followed, however, a negative response.

With extraordinary energy he began to work, drew up draft legislation was the memoirs and notes, wrote a letter to the king, which tried to convince him of the necessity of the measure. September 13 1774 city He spent, in spite of resistance, the restoration of the Edict of the grain Trade 1764 city, but in a broader way. In addition edict was issued several orders that destroy the monopoly of traders bread Rouen , bakers in Lyon , all monopolies and regulations, created in Paris and around the city only for supervision over the execution of them in 4 million livres annually. By 1776 city Turgot preparing as a series of edicts, aimed to free development of economic forces, as well as a number of projects had in mind reorganizing management and welfare of the rural population. Edict to replace the natural road trespass money tax should embrace not only the whole of France, but those estates, who enjoyed the privilege and were removed from the execution of road service. In connection with this measure as a complement, Turgot back in 1775, the reformed Postal carriage which he separated from sending letters and organized on a new basis. Has been installed correctly and non-stop transport of goods and passengers in 8-seater coaches, dubbed tyurgotiz. And the cost of transport and the transport have been reduced. About one case arisen on the basis of intercepted letters, Turgot persuaded the King to publicly condemn the so-called « black cabinet », stating that "the principles put secret correspondence of citizens in a number of sacred objects, of which the courts and private persons are obliged to avert their gaze. "

the export trade in wine has been constrained in France a number of privileges. Some cities - Bordeaux , Marseille and others, are the main points of export, - enjoyed special advantages to the detriment of all producers of wine in France. Turgot abolished the privileges and established a free trade in wine, but managed to make the registration of the edict only in the parliaments Toulouse and Dauphine and high council Roussillon .

most important measure that carried the cherished ideal of Gournay and Turgot, was the abolition of shops edict 1776 city Work has been declared the personal property and on his own, right to work in the form of the royal regalia was abolished and, as consequence, declared abolished "institutions that stifle competition industrialists", "deprive the state of industrial knowledge brought by foreigners, hinder the development of industry, enriching the country. Foreigners granted was to work freely in France. Turgot keen example of England, go to the factory system and hoped in view of the difficulties created for British industry struggles with the United States, to involve England workers in France and thus to move to France, new production methods, new machines, the obstacles encountered in craft economic policy. Section 14 of the Edict introduced prohibition, which the English manufacturers finally achieved only in 1814 city - the prohibition to all artists, workers, students form of association or assembly under any whatever pretext, that is depriving the workers in the name of freedom of labor belonged to them before law.

Turgot not thought to restrict the individual reforms. He had an extensive plan, which he hoped to realize gradually in France and so revive the disintegrating state system. The structure plan includes projects to reform public education in kinds of training citizens to the proper implementation of reforms. Turgot had dreamed about drafting books adapted to the moral and social development of the masses. On the other hand, had in mind to buy liege rights (for this purpose has been released Brochure Boncerf'a « Sur les emouvements des droits féodaux », which condemned the parliament, but Turgot took under his protection) and to reform the administrative system by setting up local self , authorities who managed to local affairs, without limiting the prerogatives of absolute power. Report in this regard was submitted to Turgot king. But it all failed.

Another outstanding achievement was the establishment of Turgot March 24 1776 year limited partnership Caisse d'Escompt , had the right to issue bank notes-bills. Since its inception the bank had the closest contact with the government and provides it with the provision of a loan of 6,000,000 francs. In 1788 city the government has forced a course, and then in 1790 city recognized the official legal tender banknotes tool. After that, France had drowned in a stream of notes, bringing the Caisse into bankruptcy and leaving for many years a general lack of confidence in paper money .

May 12 1776 city Turgot was dismissed from office on the personal orders of the king, twenty months ago, promised Turgot keep it in the name of the people to which, by According to the king, only he and Turgot entertained true love. On the side of Turgot were only men of thought, the rest of France, or did not know Turgot, or was directly hostile to it. The influential circle of parliaments, particularly in Paris, was hostile to Turgot. He was considered an enemy of liberties and rights of Parliament, he could not forgive any of its entry into chambre royale , nor his opposition to the project of restoration of parliament after closing at Mopua. Parliament refused registrovat edicts, and Turgot had to organize so-called lits de justice . Turgot was against the clergy, irritated, and eliminate the requirement of an oath formula for the extermination of heretics, and his theory of tolerance, and its attempts to bring the clergy on a large scale to bear public duties, and his decree about freestyle selling meat on fast days, and even his tyurgozinami, rapid movement which, without stops, prevented the passengers to attend worship. His enemies were all monopolies, merchants bread, tax-farmers who have lost opportunities to profit in the previously existing rate; against him were the nobility, who considered "Affront" to the equation with the people and attempt to impose "sacrilegiously" hands on "holy" franchise. Among the worst enemies were Turgot courtiers, irritated parsimony Turgot, his desire to save, refusal to issue various court ladies, money, determination, Turgot in pursuit one of the favorites of the Queen, the Duke de Gin, convicted in the use of diplomatic secrets known to him as London's ambassador to the game on the market. Turgot's opponents were even people like Necker , insulted cold reception Turgot and oppose him in the matter of the grain trade, and the question on the budget. Turgot was the sole support of the King, within 20 months of inferior almost all of its requirements, but weak, indecisive, lazy, outside the scope constantly under someone's influence, Louis XVI will soon become impatient energy and perseverance of his minister. Turgot was the subject of pamphlets and denunciations; clergy assured the king that Turgot atheist, princes of the blood - that Turgot destroy the kingdom and the crown, the queen openly expressed his dislike of Turgot and even demanded enclosing it in Bastille . The king began to avoid conversations with Turgot and often - for example in the awarding of the same Ginya, the question of the appointment of a successor Malesherbes and reform of the ministry - to act against the wishes of Turgot. The latter had no influence on the King personally, and through correspondence, which entered them into the habit right from the entry Turgot in the management of the ministry.

Letters that Turgot wrote in April 1776 city, fill up the cup King, and he ordered Turgot to resign. In a letter dated April 30 1776 city Turgot not only complained about the increasing alienation of the king and his silence, but subjected to blatant criticism of the ministry and the king himself. He bluntly declared that he remained in the Ministry of lonely and isolated, pointed to what the degree of harm it will respond to future dealings, and especially hard pressed forward on the "extreme inexperience of the king, who in my youth needs energetic and enlightened leader. Having described the confusion in the minds, the lack of unity in the Ministry of courage and chutzpah of parliament, joining with the court circles, always intriguing and seeking to profit at the expense of the treasury, already ravaged, Turgot openly pointed to the dangerous consequences of such provisions for the weak and inexperienced King. "All that storm, which would be caused by my resignation, will fall upon you, and you shall fall, in turn, pulling in his fall and royal power. " With unusual courage Turgot referred to the examples of the past, the fate of the weak kings, the fate of Charles IX in France and Charles I in England. His prophetic words have gone unheeded and the response.

How To Mount Collecrtors Pins

Deutschen Bundestag

Bundestag NGF ( nіm. Bundestag - zasіdannya Union) - Parliament , body of popular representation Federal Republic of Germany . One constitutional authority in the political system of Germany , elected directly all citizens of the country. B. The term of election of deputies - four years. Premature dissolution of parliament is possible only as an exception and is in the competence Federal President .

Bundestag major functions: making laws, the election of Chancellor and control of the government. At meetings parliamentary committees a major part of the preparation of laws. During the meetings must be coordinated political will and the knowledge of experts in the relevant region. On the committees entrusted with the main work of the parliamentary oversight of government.

This applies to all committees, from the Committee foreign policy and ending with the Budget Committee, which has particular significance because represents a sovereign right of parliament to approve the budget. У комітет з петицій бундестагу з проханнями і скаргами безпосередньо може звернутися будь-який громадянин. Депутати бундестагу обираються в ході загальних, direct, free and equal elections by secret ballot. They represent all the people, not bound by orders and instructions and obey only its conscience. Therefore, exclusion or withdrawal from the party not caused by a deprivation of mandate. According to their party affiliation MPs represent a fraction, if it they have a minimum of parliamentary seats. The number represents the number fraction of its representatives in the committees. Chairman of the Bundestag traditionally elected from the ranks of the largest faction. He leads the plenary meetings and monitors compliance with parliamentary regulations.

Sitzverteilung im 16. Deutschen Bundestag

© DBT / Karl-Heinz Döring

meets The distribution of seats in the Bundestag, the proportion of the votes cast on the parties. To calculate the distribution of seats in the Bundestag, decided by the judge for a British Thomas Hare and the German mathematician Horst Niemeyer developed model. Thereafter, the available seats in the Bundestag with the number of second votes are multiplied to each party and by the total number of second votes divided on the distribution of all participating parties. In this case each party receives as many seats as they account for integers. That are still available seats are in the order the highest residues, resulting in the calculation divided. In another Zählgang the directly elected Members will be deducted from the total number identified for each country.
overhang seats: revision of the electoral law required

direct mandates and state lists

Group	direct mandates	state lists	total
15 overhang seats, 6 for the CDU / CSU, the SPD 9 for
CDU / CSU	147 3	76	223
SPD	145	77	222
FDP	-	61	61
THE LEFT.	3	50	53
Alliance 90/The Greens	a	50	51
Non-attached	(1) 1	(1) 2	2
Bundestag total	297	315	612

1) The Representative Henry Nitzsche was chosen as a direct candidate of the CDU and retired on 15 December 2006 the CDU / CSU from.

2) The deputy Gert Meier angle was on the state list of The Left. elected and resigned on 13 February 2006 of DIE LINKE. from.

3) Members Matthias Wissmann and Johann-Henrich Krummenacher won in the parliamentary elections in 2005, direct mandates. Matthias Wissmann retired at 01 June 2007 from the Bundestag, Johann-Henrich Krummenacher died on 25 February 2008. As long as one party has overhang mandates, leaving a deputy moves to no one.