is French economist and statesman Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, baron de l'Aulne In protyvopolozhnost Voltaire, Turgot tried to show that progress
thought manifested itself even in the "dark and barbaric" era of the Middle Ages
. Upon emerging from the Sorbonne Turgot admitted to the Paris parliament and two years later was promoted to
reketmeystera . But studies of judicial affairs did not absorb Turgot: he wanted to write
philosophy History , engaged
geography , literature, natural sciences and quickly disappeared from almost all erudite and literary world of Paris. He became a member of the salon of Madame
Zhoffren , where he met with
Montesquieu ,
d'Alembert ,
Helvetius ,
Holbach , and later (1762) and Adam Smith
.
It was especially important for his introduction in 1755, the with the head of the school Physiocrats , Ken , and Gournay . With the latest Turgot became friends more than anything, has traveled with him to France, studied the state of the industry and trade, familiar with the economic policy of the Government and its findings. One piece Turgot appears after the other, and in almost every affected burning questions. Turgot wrote against the philosophy of Berkeley (« Lettres contre le système de Berkeley ») and against Maupertuis , on the question of the origin of language (« Remarques critiques », 1750 ); parses the famous« Peruvian letters »( 1751 ,« Observations à M-me de Graffigny »); is the plan as political geography , and World History (« Géographie politique » and « Discours sur l'histoire universelle » (did not finish.), 1750 and 1751 ); discusses the question of religious tolerance (« Lettres sur la tolérance », 1753 -4;« Le conciliateur ou lettres d'un ecclésiastique à un magistrat sur la tolérance civile », 1754 ); makes a number of philosophical and economic articles in the encyclopedia, and a number of books on the same issues (the words Existence, Etymologie, Expansibihte, Foires et marihés, Fondation in encyclopedias; éloge de Gournay , 1759 ). Everywhere and in all Turgot is a kind of a thinker, a man of moderate thinking, did not share the mood, hostile creatures system. Thus, in his letters to Madame de Graffigna Turgot is an advocate of inequality, seeing in it the good, without which even the development of useful Art. In the treatises on religious tolerance, despite the breadth of vision, Turgot was behind a State's right to choose a particular religion, and provide protection, thereby eliminating the possibility of strengthening the superstition, bigotry, etc. According to Ken, he is to maintain an unlimited central authority "under the influence of memories of the great benefactions rendered France and Europe, a king who established the community and gave the civil rights of the vast mass of people " (Memoirs of Madame Hausset). Commitment to its monarchy affected and in receipt of Turgot in a reformed parliament (in chambre royale , 1754 ), and in the note submitted them as a minister Louis XVI on the reform of municipalities, and in a letter to Dr. Price on the U.S. Constitution.
In 1761, the Turgot was appointed intendant in Limoges , where he stayed until 1774 city Here, his work gets the most widespread. It never ceases to engage in scientific matters, has been active correspondence with friends on different issues to scientists, translates Horace and Popa , to exchange ideas about the pronunciation Latin letters from David Hume , about philosophy and ethics - with Condorcet , wrote a series of treatises on political economy (« Réflexions sur la formation et la distribution des richesses », Article about the value and money in the commercial dictionary Morellet, Memoires free trade bread for a loan, the mining industry, sends a number of circulars to local officials, rural priests, etc., on the allocation of taxes and embodying the whole theory of financial law.
At the same time, he tirelessly working as a quartermaster, performing very carefully all the infinite variety of functions associated with this title. In his charge was large district. This was the area to keep a clean agricultural character. Except for a few factories are concentrated in Limoges and a few other cities, the industry is almost non-existent. Trade was very poorly developed, encountering obstacles and be able to means of communication, and poverty, primitive way to cultivate the land, mostly by cows on marginal soil, and forced the masses to go on the annual earnings in other areas, even in Spain. This area was terribly burdened by taxes. Of the total income earned by about 48-50% went to the Revenue. According to the calculations Turgot, she overpaid treasury for 700 thousand francs more than the other provinces of the kingdom. To join this extremely uneven taxation of individual counties and parishes, a unique set of complete chaos in compiling lists of tax-paying, irregular and often arbitrary valuation of land owned by peasants.
Upon arrival in Limousin Turgot first attempted to correct the evil caused by a system of taxation. Based on the theory of the Physiocrats, Turgot in his memoir « Sur les impositions » pointed out the main conditions for the establishment of tax: it must be quite precise and definite and consistent income landowner. In practice, however, he had to stay under the old system, that is, when charging a certain amount from each parish, the people who distribute it between them. He conceived, however, there was a kadastratsiyu , to produce a complete description of the area, the site of the site, by remeasurement them and correct and detailed assessment of profitability of each. He followed the work of its agents, and gathered a lot of accurate data in many parishes. Not his fault was that started the case was not brought to an end. For a serious inventory holding he lacked the funds and the government denied him in their allocations. On the other hand, evaluation work in one Limuzene without the same all over France did not give strong grounds for determining the share of taxes owed to the Limousin. All efforts Turgot fold excess taxed weight from Limousin proved just as futile as the insistence of its relative kadastratsii throughout France. His efforts have had, however, a considerable influence on people's minds, and the system that he used in Limuzene, became the starting point for a subsequent time.
better Turgot reached of the reforms he had in relation to natural road trespass ( corvée ). Even earlier, the quartermaster at Qana, Fonzett, tried to convert natural obligations in cash. Turgot to expand what has been done Fonzettom, and, despite stubborn resistance, achieved that in 1764 city most of the parishes expressed its consent to the reform. Soon after the fund is established by which Turgot could start a series of road structures, linking the main centers of the province between themselves. In relation to another scourge of the rural population - police , Turgot tried to replace the draw, causes the greatest complaints system Writing in the voluntary policemen, and freed from the heavy responsibilities of parishes to look for evaded conscription. To ensure rural population, he applied to Limuzenu practiced already in the Languedoc and Franche-Comté return delivery wagons for military matters in the hands of an entrepreneur with the contract. Finally, Turgot began to build the barracks to limit anything like Postojna ruinous duty.
Studying the past has led Turgot to the conclusion that the fact that ownership is gradually separated from the fact that cultivation of land, resulting in gross income from the land was distributed among farmer, as a reward for hard work, and the owner. The latter, less given out to the worker and discharged on the other production costs gets all the remaining, or net income. Under such circumstances, the burden of tax on Turgot, was supposed to fall on the owner, not the farmer. Release, as possible, the latter from taxation created by the old regime , reduce the bad effects of it by kadastratsii, to promote all measures raising culture, to eliminate the harmful influence of prevailing economic policies - such were the main objectives of Turgot's view of the ultimate goal common with the Physiocrats: increasing the country's wealth. He patronized the agricultural society, trying to direct its activities on the application improved methods of agriculture, organized on regular basis, compensation for losses incurred by farmers and others from poor harvests, hail, fire, etc., abolished the right of police officers sent to collect the arrears, taking from the peasants of the fare and content, as well as the right to sell arrears for bed, livestock, agricultural implements, coined the potatoes.
According to Turgot, freedom - the main condition for the development of wealth: it should be given to everyone in the field of labor, and in the field of trade relations. To create national wealth should be returned trade that precious the freedom that it has lost because of prejudice generated by a century of ignorance and the tendency of governments to appease private interests, to facilitate opportunity for everyone to work, thereby possibly create greater competition, leading to improved production and pricing, the most profitable for buyers. Combining the theory of freedom and unlimited competition with the theory of separation of the owner of the worker, Turgot states that "working Desktop Board is limited to that necessary for its existence. " In 1769 city in Angouleme arose commercial crisis as a result of flooding Market inflated (friendly) Bills . Trade has stopped, the merchants lost their credit, many people turned out to be bankrupt. Speculators, put into circulation phony bill, conceived to take advantage of crisis: they began to accuse those whom they have used these bills in usury, and filed a complaint against them in court, relying existed in France at the medieval laws of growth. Turgot used the crisis, both theoretically and in practice. He succeeded in transferring case to the Royal Council, the suspension of prosecution and interdiction bring such cases in future. He presented to the board in the form of memoir his famous treatise on the rise ( sur les prêts d'argent ), which subjected to a rigorous critique of medieval views on growth. His arguments were repeated in one way or another form of liberal economists school XIX century. not succeeded Turgot's only one thing: the publication of the royal declaration, which would authorize its principles.
for trade and monetary crisis followed in Limuzene in 1770 - 1771 years. terrible famine - as a consequence of bad harvests and weaken the existing population regime. The energy found in Turgot these unfortunate years has been amazing. He has made the government loan in 1240 thousand livres, overexposed 90 thousand, has spent his personal funds (20 thousand livres), called for help society organized throughout Limuzene and workshops, and offices for the issuance of allowances and to some measure saved population from the horrors of famine. But most importantly, what he had in mind - it was free trade , in this case, trade in grain. In 1764 city royal edict allow free trade in grain, but when the famine, Bordeaux Parliament issued a decree limiting the operation of the law, municipalities began to violate it, and the Comptroller General , Abbe Terre , draw up a new edict to repeal the law 1764 city Turgot appealed to the Board of the Royal rescission of the decree of the Parliament of Bordeaux, has canceled all orders of urban municipalities, against freedom of trade, sent the villages a lot of copies as the edict 1764 city and Letrona treatise on freedom of trade in grain, became the person to go on starving the localities, promoting their ideas. From October to December 1770 , during the way, among the tireless work at the spot in favor of starving Turgot sent one letter after another to the abbot Terre, trying to convince him of the need to preserve and expand freedom of trade in grain. In the 7 letters to Turgot had exhausted all the arguments in favor of free trade bread. She had, in his opinion, call the culture of all the provinces of France, Limousin lead to the same level with Normandy and Picardy , harmful polovnichestvo must give way under such conditions, farming, large-scale culture, that is, by implementing the basic principle fiziokratizma, increase the wealth of the country. Efforts Turgot proved futile. Terre won the approval of the Edict of King December 23 1770, is repealed the basic principles of law 1764 city
In 1774, the the throne joined Louis XVI . Turgot's favorite philosopher and economist, was appointed First Minister of the Navy, and later, in August of that year, the Comptroller General of Finance. Appointment of it seemed a pledge of a better future, but in reality it was only a matter of court influences, especially coming on from a friend Turgot, the Abbe Beri, Turgot and the fans and his theories, the Duchess of d'Anvil.
Turgot was appointed inspector in adulthood, with well defined beliefs, with the finished program. As quartermaster, he had already tried to apply his theory and in practice, but here his work is disseminated in a small area he was involved a law, independent of the royal council, and only in small matters can act independently.
new post he occupied in the belief that he is able to convert the France based on his principles. Not that he did not foresee the obstacles in its way. He undoubtedly feared the influence of the Queen when he was a program for the king, then wrote the words: "and against the generosity of Your Majesty," he began wrote: "Queen", but crossed out the words. He likes the absolute power he had, however, firmly convinced that with her help he is able to carry the projected reform: he attributed the words "give me 5 years despotism - and France will be free." He presented the king his profession de foi , a whole program of its future actions and reforms, entirely built on he developed economic and political theory. "I will not deceive you," - he answered the king Turgot an audience August 27 1774 city At one of the requirements Tyurrgo, throw out the old formulas coronation oath phrase about the extermination of heretics, was followed, however, a negative response.
With extraordinary energy he began to work, drew up draft legislation was the memoirs and notes, wrote a letter to the king, which tried to convince him of the necessity of the measure. September 13 1774 city He spent, in spite of resistance, the restoration of the Edict of the grain Trade 1764 city, but in a broader way. In addition edict was issued several orders that destroy the monopoly of traders bread Rouen , bakers in Lyon , all monopolies and regulations, created in Paris and around the city only for supervision over the execution of them in 4 million livres annually. By 1776 city Turgot preparing as a series of edicts, aimed to free development of economic forces, as well as a number of projects had in mind reorganizing management and welfare of the rural population. Edict to replace the natural road trespass money tax should embrace not only the whole of France, but those estates, who enjoyed the privilege and were removed from the execution of road service. In connection with this measure as a complement, Turgot back in 1775, the reformed Postal carriage which he separated from sending letters and organized on a new basis. Has been installed correctly and non-stop transport of goods and passengers in 8-seater coaches, dubbed tyurgotiz. And the cost of transport and the transport have been reduced. About one case arisen on the basis of intercepted letters, Turgot persuaded the King to publicly condemn the so-called « black cabinet », stating that "the principles put secret correspondence of citizens in a number of sacred objects, of which the courts and private persons are obliged to avert their gaze. "
the export trade in wine has been constrained in France a number of privileges. Some cities - Bordeaux , Marseille and others, are the main points of export, - enjoyed special advantages to the detriment of all producers of wine in France. Turgot abolished the privileges and established a free trade in wine, but managed to make the registration of the edict only in the parliaments Toulouse and Dauphine and high council Roussillon .
most important measure that carried the cherished ideal of Gournay and Turgot, was the abolition of shops edict 1776 city Work has been declared the personal property and on his own, right to work in the form of the royal regalia was abolished and, as consequence, declared abolished "institutions that stifle competition industrialists", "deprive the state of industrial knowledge brought by foreigners, hinder the development of industry, enriching the country. Foreigners granted was to work freely in France. Turgot keen example of England, go to the factory system and hoped in view of the difficulties created for British industry struggles with the United States, to involve England workers in France and thus to move to France, new production methods, new machines, the obstacles encountered in craft economic policy. Section 14 of the Edict introduced prohibition, which the English manufacturers finally achieved only in 1814 city - the prohibition to all artists, workers, students form of association or assembly under any whatever pretext, that is depriving the workers in the name of freedom of labor belonged to them before law.
Turgot not thought to restrict the individual reforms. He had an extensive plan, which he hoped to realize gradually in France and so revive the disintegrating state system. The structure plan includes projects to reform public education in kinds of training citizens to the proper implementation of reforms. Turgot had dreamed about drafting books adapted to the moral and social development of the masses. On the other hand, had in mind to buy liege rights (for this purpose has been released Brochure Boncerf'a « Sur les emouvements des droits féodaux », which condemned the parliament, but Turgot took under his protection) and to reform the administrative system by setting up local self , authorities who managed to local affairs, without limiting the prerogatives of absolute power. Report in this regard was submitted to Turgot king. But it all failed.
Another outstanding achievement was the establishment of Turgot March 24 1776 year limited partnership Caisse d'Escompt , had the right to issue bank notes-bills. Since its inception the bank had the closest contact with the government and provides it with the provision of a loan of 6,000,000 francs. In 1788 city the government has forced a course, and then in 1790 city recognized the official legal tender banknotes tool. After that, France had drowned in a stream of notes, bringing the Caisse into bankruptcy and leaving for many years a general lack of confidence in paper money .
May 12 1776 city Turgot was dismissed from office on the personal orders of the king, twenty months ago, promised Turgot keep it in the name of the people to which, by According to the king, only he and Turgot entertained true love. On the side of Turgot were only men of thought, the rest of France, or did not know Turgot, or was directly hostile to it. The influential circle of parliaments, particularly in Paris, was hostile to Turgot. He was considered an enemy of liberties and rights of Parliament, he could not forgive any of its entry into
chambre royale , nor his opposition to the project of restoration of parliament after closing at Mopua. Parliament refused registrovat edicts, and Turgot had to organize so-called
lits de justice . Turgot was against the clergy, irritated, and eliminate the requirement of an oath formula for the extermination of heretics, and his theory of tolerance, and its attempts to bring the clergy on a large scale to bear public duties, and his decree about freestyle selling meat on fast days, and even his tyurgozinami, rapid movement which, without stops, prevented the passengers to attend worship. His enemies were all monopolies, merchants bread, tax-farmers who have lost opportunities to profit in the previously existing rate; against him were the nobility, who considered "Affront" to the equation with the people and attempt to impose "sacrilegiously" hands on "holy" franchise. Among the worst enemies were Turgot courtiers, irritated parsimony Turgot, his desire to save, refusal to issue various court ladies, money, determination, Turgot in pursuit one of the favorites of the Queen, the Duke de Gin, convicted in the use of diplomatic secrets known to him as London's ambassador to the game on the market. Turgot's opponents were even people like
Necker , insulted cold reception Turgot and oppose him in the matter of the grain trade, and the question on the budget. Turgot was the sole support of the King, within 20 months of inferior almost all of its requirements, but weak, indecisive, lazy, outside the scope constantly under someone's influence, Louis XVI will soon become impatient energy and perseverance of his minister. Turgot was the subject of pamphlets and denunciations; clergy assured the king that Turgot atheist, princes of the blood - that Turgot destroy the kingdom and the crown, the queen openly expressed his dislike of Turgot and even demanded enclosing it in
Bastille . The king began to avoid conversations with Turgot and often - for example in the awarding of the same Ginya, the question of the appointment of a successor Malesherbes and reform of the ministry - to act against the wishes of Turgot. The latter had no influence on the King personally, and through correspondence, which entered them into the habit right from the entry Turgot in the management of the ministry.
Letters that Turgot wrote in April 1776 city, fill up the cup King, and he ordered Turgot to resign. In a letter dated April 30 1776 city Turgot not only complained about the increasing alienation of the king and his silence, but subjected to blatant criticism of the ministry and the king himself. He bluntly declared that he remained in the Ministry of lonely and isolated, pointed to what the degree of harm it will respond to future dealings, and especially hard pressed forward on the "extreme inexperience of the king, who in my youth needs energetic and enlightened leader. Having described the confusion in the minds, the lack of unity in the Ministry of courage and chutzpah of parliament, joining with the court circles, always intriguing and seeking to profit at the expense of the treasury, already ravaged, Turgot openly pointed to the dangerous consequences of such provisions for the weak and inexperienced King. "All that storm, which would be caused by my resignation, will fall upon you, and you shall fall, in turn, pulling in his fall and royal power. " With unusual courage Turgot referred to the examples of the past, the fate of the weak kings, the fate of Charles IX in France and Charles I in England. His prophetic words have gone unheeded and the response.
